About Gallos theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

About Gallos theory - Essay Example This bring of board Gallos four-dimensional diagnostic theory which proposes for a multi-pronged approach to organizational diagnosis, change anddevelopment Organizations can be understood as families, machines, a theater or even a jungle. In line with this view, it can then be argued out that organizations are ordinarily characterized with complexity. This therefore necessitates for a diagnostic model to be brought on board to assist in better comprehending this complexity. One of the theories used in shading light to organizational complexity is Gallos’ four-dimensional diagnostic model. Undeniably, organizations have complex dynamics. Besides being obliged with the reframing role in those organization development works which are seemingly effective, the aforementioned model also makes an exploration the various avenues through which the multi-frame model can be employed for purposes of expanding perceptions of the organization’s stipulated change, development and intervention strategy. This brings to our attention the aspect of organizational theory. By definition, organizational theory denotes the study of the structur es, designs as well as relationships of an organization with the external environment. Organizational theory encompasses the strategies that organizations embark on so as to comfortably cope up with changes taking place within and around the organization. In addition, organizational theory (OT) also entails the study of an organization so that the organization in question can be in a better position to reap from the identification of a shared theme of purpose, maximize productivity and efficiency and at the same time ensure that it satisfactorily meets the stakeholders’ needs. Notably, the principal traditions in organizational theory fall into four discrete areas, commonly known as frames. These frames include organizational structure, political dynamics, human resource and

Spirituality in Organizational Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Spirituality in Organizational Strategy - Essay Example Senior leaders of the organization should be able to embrace it strategically and use it as a determinant of organizational performance. A leader should have emotional intelligence which will help support the spirituality of an organization. Casey claims that if a leader does not have emotional intelligence, it will be hard for him of her to embrace spirituality in his organization (34-46). Recently, there has been a major debate on business and spirituality, where many leaders have advocated for a link between issues of the soul and corporate success. However, there is some irony in this spirituality and business juxtaposition if a leader decides to reflect upon the signs of corporate scandals that have been brought by multiple legal and ethical lapses that occur in any organization. However, one would be cynical to think that spirituality phenomenon is a reason of many contradictions in organizations. This paper aims to explain why spirituality in an organization is strategically i mportant and how leaders can use it as a determinant of organizational performance. Leaders often doubt spirituality that is used outside any religious meetings, and therefore, this paper will discuss useful objectives that can be internalized into an organization strategy and how organizational leadership can affect their success. A leader is someone who is capable of influencing his followers to behave or think the same way. Spirit on the other hand, can be defined as a vital force within living beings. If we combine the two terms, it suggests that a leader is someone who can understand and seek out his inner self as well as fosters the same meaning to his employees. Srivastra asserts that spirituality in leadership is an approach in leadership where a leader will strive to influence a sense of interconnectedness and significance among his employees (45-67). Spirituality in leadership therefore, involves principles and spiritual values in the workplace. If a leader is spiritual he will understand the significance of employees finding meaning in the work, which demonstrate a genuine concern for the particular person and not just workers. Spirituality in leadership will help assist employees find meaning in their duties by addressing important questions like the great purpose of their work as well as the worth of their work. Additionally, it will help them in defining their ethical values and principles, legacy and who they are in the organization. Therefore, a spiritual leader will try hard to make his workplace a community, consisting of employees with shared beliefs, values and traditions. Such leadership will also focus more diversity and transformation, rather than on people and power as well as controlling. It will also focus on inspiration and collaboration (Nandam 23-46). However, this does not mean that being a spiritual leader, a leader should adhere to a particular religion or attempt to convince his employees to pursue specific religious set of pri nciples. It is concerned more with the growth of the workers as an individual person, people who show off their compassion to their customers, superiors, employees and subordinates (Bubna 34-88). Spirituality in an organization is important because the employers in the workplace will be able to find the meaning of their lives. In the world today, most of the employees look up to their workplace as one of the ways of defining their lives as well as give meaning to their lives that is torn apart by modern way of living. For example, back then people lived as close knit family, including their extended family, but the world today has changed because nuclear family is not enough to give an employee emotional support and

United Nations Environmental Program Essay Example for Free

United Nations Environmental Program Essay There are a lot of articles, books and essays that have been written, touching on the relationship that land has with agricultural practices. For instance, Helmut Geist and Lambin Eric in their essay make postulations that irresponsible agricultural practices have been responsible for the disappearance of tropical forest covers, both at the local and regional levels. The two, being postdoctoral researchers in geography, specializing in the field of global climatic change, posit that irresponsible agriculture is far much responsible for the concept of land use and land cover change (LUCC). To back this argument up, Helmut and Lambin elucidate on the matter, postulating that irresponsible agriculture negatively affects the LUCC than any other practice carried out within the auspices of human civilization. To bolster this notion, it is posited by the two that apart from the fact that agricultural activities has the potency to deliver negative environmental degradation, irresponsible agriculture has the ability to deliver soil erosion- a feat that environmental degradation cannot receive from the industrial sector and its pollution. Evidence Presented The strengths in these claims are that farming and irresponsible agriculture has in most times been blamed for soil degradation. Much evidence is adduced and presented by Helmut and Lambin in this work. For instance, Helmut and Lambin quote the United Nations Environmental Program 2004 statistics that indicate that tilling land that is on a hill and failure to build gabions have in most instances been blamed for over 75% of cases touching on soil erosion (Levine 2006). In another wavelength, it is true that irresponsible farming activities harms the soil when very strong inorganic fertilizers are used, making the soil become resistant to fertilizers and pesticides. Weaknesses Critics such as Geist (2006) point that there are pitfalls in this work that was presented by Helmut and Lambin. For example, in the first case, not all the adverse effects of irresponsible farming practices are dealt with herein. For example, there is no point on the role overstocking (of animals) plays towards soil erosion and the depletion of the scarce resources within the environment. Nevertheless, it is true that all the above factors contribute to the disappearance of the land cover. Assumptions made by the writers At the same time, there are some assumptions that Helmut and Lambin make. Assuming that keeping the right size of cattle, building gabions, using the right quantities of organic fertilizers and pesticides are the only panacea in themselves against the spread of the loss of fertile land is a fallacy on its own. On the contrary, the two forget to address important farming practices such as the growing of leguminous crops, crop rotation and fallowing of land, as being instrumental in the cause against soil erosion. Growing leguminous crops such as beans help in nitrogen fixing in the soil, whereas crop rotation and mixed cropping helps the land receive nutrition from different types of crops. Letting land lay fallow on the other hand, enables the revitalization of pedological energy and the recovery of humus. These are the counterarguments that have been put forth by other critics such as Singh and Fox (2001). Conclusion and importance of the problems and the argument being tackled The sacrosance of the argument at hand is that there is a serious interrelationship between LUCC and human life. This means that mismanagement of the former has the potency to ruthlessly damage the cause of human life. It is no wonder that calls are rife from UNEP for the leading economies to tow the line in ensuring that there is the assuaging of soil, water and air pollution so that the prospects of future human survival can be consolidated. Works Cited Singh, Ram and Fox, Jefferson. A Look at Land Use and Cover Change. New York: McGraw Hill. 2001. Geist, Helmut. A Study on Earth’s Changing Landscape. Colorado: John Wiley and Sons. 2006. Levine, Joel. Global Change and the Burning of Biomass. Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 2006.

Recommendations Report for the Monsanto Company Analysis of Social responsibility

Recommendations Report for the Monsanto Company Analysis of Social responsibility The increases of food production in a growing globalize demand with limitations of natural resources and global climate change has become a huge problem in every part of the world. Monsanto believes they have an answer to this problem: Grow more food with fewer seeds. This provides the necessary balance to double the worlds food production by 2050, which is what the United Nations predicts, will be necessary. This could be the solution to resolving the worlds food needs in an environmentally and socially sustainable manner. Biotechnology could be used to support an agricultural system based on the principles of ecology, stability, and sustainability. It appears to offer the necessary means to diminish the environmental pressure of industrial agriculture. Monsantos involvement in Keystone Alliance Project for sustainable agriculture is a step ahead to achieve long term, permanent improvement in sustainable agriculture production. Monsanto and other companies joined together to bring a solution for improving the ability to feed future generations. Despite Monsantos advances in biotechnology, corporate social programs and alliances the company has done little to change consumer opinions of the company and the acceptance of the GMOs. Examples of this are a marketing strategy that ties Roundup to Monsantos genetically engineered products. Monsantos opposition to seed saving by farmers, followed by a heavy enforcement of intellectual property rights and an opposition to the labeling regulations of genetically engineered crops. Monsanto thinks it will stigmatize the product and possibly raise more consumer concerns. Yet Monsantos objection to food labeling raises a conflict with the very notion that GMOs would eventually be more desirable than traditional crops. As a result, not only did Monsantos actions hold back its growth potential, they also hurt present day markets by eventually undermining public confidence. Monsanto has not demonstrated a willingness to listen to these concerns. From a sustainability perspective, its biotech based strategy does not address poverty and food access issues. It fails to differentiate between the developed and developing worlds. This calls into question the sincerity of its feed the world mission. Genetically engineered western commodity crops were Monsantos first products, which were completely inappropriate for developing countries. Introduction Today consumers are very aware with what companies are selling, promoting and marketing. Whats more, in todays information rich society most consumers are aware of how corporate social responsibility (CSR) programs can  impact the bottom line.   As a result of this social awareness and a down economy, companies are starting to prove the value of their products and services to consumers. One of the main reasons of CSR awareness was the  proliferation of social media tools that result in an increased consumer activism. Consumers are now rapidly sharing online to both praise and attack companies. As a result, firms started a new trend where they are looking to effectively communicate and rally stakeholders around their shared values. Monsanto, the world leader on sustainable agriculture has been working and implementing a development on corporate social responsibility. Implementing biotechnology to aid hunger and malnutrition world problems, as well as programs like Baechell-Borlaug International Program, the Keystone Alliance for sustainable agriculture, the Mississippi River Basin, and voluntarism on the communities where business operates.  [1]   But despite all of its technological advances, programs and implementations Monsanto is under the gun on a number of different issues. The public has not responded positively to Monsantos efforts; fail to provide reliable information and proof safety for consumer acceptance to support GM food. Many activists questioned the firms use of science saying it creates foods that threaten the health of both people and the planet, and the use of intellectual property laws to squeeze every last penny out of the worlds poor. Also Monsanto has not show willingness to listen to this environmental and health concerns. To gain publics trust Monsanto has to improve their business integrity, ethics, and be more transparent and truthful about the scientific information on the biotechnological products to give the consumer confidence of GM foods. Also the company needs to change position from being opposed to labeling foods that are GMOs. Strengths Overview Biotechnology Monsantos biotechnology appears to offer the necessary means to diminish the environmental pressure of industrial agriculture. The use of herbicides, pesticides, and other agricultural inputs can be significantly decreased, and the ability to grow crops in poor-quality soils and drought areas could prevent deforestation and the alteration of sensitive lands to agriculture. Monsantos biotechnological sustainability, offers a way to improve the ecological efficiency of agriculture by reducing inputs (herbicides, pesticides) and increasing resource efficiency.  [2]  Yet, the environment is but one consideration in the transition to sustainable agriculture. And although biotechnology may indeed prove to be a necessary tool for achieving agricultural sustainability, by no means is it sufficient. Robert Shapiros (Ex-Monsantos CEO) strategy was based on the belief that biotechnology and the life sciences were the solution to resolving the worlds food needs in an environmentally and soci ally sustainable manner.  [3]   Commitment to Sustainable Yield The increase of food production in a growing globalized demand with limitations of natural resources and global climate change is the companys commitment to sustainability. The companys three strategies to meet these challenges are: 1) By the year 2050 the need for more food production will have to double to meet the demands of a growing population. The Companys commitment is to produce more yields by helping farmers to double their crops by 2030.  [4]   2) Reduction of agricultural resource by one third per unit of output by 2030.The Companys seeds products are design to require less water, land and energy resources to conserve more resources by minimizing soil loss and greenhouse emissions. 3) Improve farmers lives and income growth through modern biotechnological agricultural technology. Beachell-Bourlaug International Scholars Program The objective of this program is to educate rice and wheat plant breeders who can serve as future agricultural leaders. The yields of wheat and rice have grown at a compound rate of about 0.8 percent over the past decade and the population has grown about 1.25 during the same period. Monsanto has come up with this program to overcome these challenges and to meet the growing demand of food. The Company pledged 10 million dollars to improve yields in these crops as part of the Companys commitment to sustainability agriculture. The program provides full support to students seeking a PhD in rice or wheat plant breeding. The program includes tuition, insurance, research fees and travel.  [5]   The Mississippi River Basin This initiative is focused on reducing nutrient and sediment movement into the United States largest river system, the Mississippi River. For this project, Monsanto is partnering with The Nature Conservancy, the Iowa Soybean Association, Delta Wildlife and National Audubon Society. The company has committed more than $ 5 million to this conservation project for the Mississippi River and agricultural landscapes, in which farmers can produce higher yield crops, fiber and fuel in ways that further preserve water quality as well as support diverse and abundant wildlife populations.  [6]   In the future, crop producers are expected to have additional on farm tools that can enhance their environmental stewardship efforts. And this project is one of many contributing to this end. Field to Market: The Keystone Alliance for Sustainable Agriculture With experts saying that we have to double food production by 2050 to meet the needs of a population projected to grow to 9 billion, the world has two choices: we need to either make each acre of farmland twice as productive, or use twice as many acres. Option two inevitably requires deforestation which can lead to habitat loss and many other environmental problems. Monsanto got involved in Keystone Alliance Project for sustainable agriculture, a nonprofit organization along with 30 other organizations, including food companies and Environmental Non-government, Private and International Organizations committed to achieve long term, permanent improvement in sustainable agriculture production. Monsanto and these other companies joined together to bring a solution for improving the ability to feed future generations. This is to be done by increasing agricultural production while decreasing environmental impact.  [7]   Investing in Communities Monsanto established the Monsanto Fund in 1964 as the charitable division of the company. It states that our philanthropic goal has been to bridge the gap between peoples needs and their available resources. We want to help people realize their dreams, and hopefully inspire them to enroll others in their vision.  [8]   Monsantos commitment to give back to communities where business is operated has been done through the creation of the Monsanto Fund which has awarded $13.9 million in grants for nutrition, education, environmental and community programs. Monsanto has awarded United Way with $ 1.1 million. Monsanto has also Monsanto Fund Matching Gifts Program. This program gives permanent Monsanto employees and active members of the Monsanto Board of Directors an opportunity to join Monsanto Funds support of not-for-profit institutions.  [9]   Monsantos philanthropic activities are meant to not only improve its image, but also provide key relationships. It understands better than anyone that relationships, partnerships and network are the key for success of the company. Weaknesses Overview Consumer Acceptance Many factors point to believe that Monsantos head position in the biotechnological industry race is going to collapse along with the publics support for GMOs. Financially, Monsanto has depleted a considerable amount of resources during its acquisition phase and has accumulated significant debt. Its designation as a biotech firm and the increased dependency on Roundup is forcing the company to rapid sales growth of its biotech products, perhaps too rapid for the publics comfort. With the growing disapproval, started in part by the mad cow disease alert and the subsequent doubts of regulatory bodies, raised doubt about the possibility of continued consumer acceptance. Monsantos choice of electing to pursue biotech products first, has contributed little to consumer acceptance of the GMOs; there is no perceptible benefit for the consumer. Also its marketing strategy at best, are only tolerated by the farmers. In addition, the environmental and human health concerns seemed suitable, and M onsanto has not demonstrated a willingness to listen to these concerns. From a sustainability perspective, its biotech based strategy do not address poverty and food access issues and fails to differentiate between the developed and developing worlds, therefore calling into question the sincerity of its feed the world mission.  [10]  Genetically engineered western commodity crops were Monsantos first products, crops wholly inappropriate for developing countries. Food Labeling Monsanto fears that GMO labeling would stigmatize the product and possibly raise additional consumer concerns, consequently preventing or slowing acceptance of GMOs technologies. Yet Monsantos objection to labeling is in conflict with the very notion that GMOs would eventually be more desirable than traditional crops. Once GMOs products entered the market, farmers would attract additional value only if an infrastructure existed for segregating GMOs crops and preserving their identity throughout the supply chain. From a midterm perspective (3-5 years), it would have been advantageous for Monsanto to support labeling requirements and to facilitate creation of an identity preserving infrastructure. As a result, not only did Monsantos actions hold back its growth potential, they also injured present day markets by ultimately undermining public confidence.  [11]   One- Size-Fits-All Strategy Although Monsanto declared an intention to meet the worlds food and fiber needs, its initial GMOs technologies is directed to western markets and commodity crops. There are many inconsistencies with Monsantos planning as a one-size-fits-all strategy with respect to developed and the developing countries. For example rice, sweet potatoes, cassava, and yams were the principal crops of developing countries, not corn, cotton, and soybeans.  [12]  In addition, Monsantos patenting of life forms and intellectual property right protection policy is seen by some as indignation to the thousand year old cultural and seed saving traditions of many of the developing countries. Developing countries, a majority of whose populations participated in the agricultural sector, often at a minimal level, more and more are looking upon Monsanto and other multinational agricultural firms as profit motivated corporate entities whose products would displace the small holder farmer  [13]  . The rapid consolidation of the seed sector, the integration of the agricultural supply chain, and the patenting of genetic inventions by Monsanto reinforced the notion of corporate domination. Consequently, by failing to differentiate between the needs of the minimal level economies to those already mature. Monsanto is hurting its global sustainability campaign and is alienating many in the developing countries. In the end, Monsanto overpromised and under delivered on its global sustainability vision, a fact that is not going unnoticed by NGOs and consumers worldwide. Recommendations Consumer Strategy When people are not treated with fairness and honesty and respect for their right to make their own decisions, there is little risk communication can do to keep them (the public) from raising hell regardless of the extent of the hazard.  [14]   Talking to the public is not the problem; listening to the public is. Monsanto essentially views the opposition as arising from consumer ignorance and, consequently, the attempt to diminish it with a supposedly effective advertising campaign, is failing miserably. Monsanto is doing little to understand the concerns of consumers upset by GMOs concerns and skeptical of science-based declarations of safety. The company does not address cultural sensitivities toward food and farmland. In the end, Monsantos relentless persistence on scientific data and ignore public perceptions is provoking even further outrage. An approach that Monsanto should follow is a process called Six Sigma which begins with listening to public to determine the strongest quality issues on Monsantos products and how that can be changed to benefit the consumer and the company yielding more profit. Following this approach, everyone wins. Consumers will benefit from safe and better products while feeling that their needs are being taken seriously and their business is valued. Monsanto would be happy because their products will gain from new innovation and improved value. Also, the company will gain loyalty and credibility through this social responsibility. The object of this system is to gain a deep understanding of consumers, in order to give them what they want. All the advertising and marketing in the world wont make up for failures on these key strategic elements. This can also be applied on the human resources policies that must support this customer focus: if the company wants happy customers, first get a content staff. Transparency Replacing secrecy and protection of proprietary information, for transparency and stakeholder commitment will likely hold the keys to success in the future. Transparency basically means taking the firewall down and reveal everything about the products from research, biological and chemical technological process and tests so that consumers can be better informed and make decisions about the products they consume. It will also lead to integrity of the company. Basically sharing information openly will welcome ideas and innovations from every angle. By analytically measuring and reporting the sustainability, Monsanto will engage everyone from employees to consumers to critics in the process of building a truthfully sustainable company. But unfortunately Monsantos checkered history as a chemical manufacturer offers the public little assurance about the accuracy and validity of the company pronouncements. The company manufactured virtually all the PCBs in the United States until they were finally banned in 1976, and taxpayers are still shelling out to clean up PCB-riddled waste sites. Monsanto also manufactured Agent Orange, which is linked to cancer and reproductive problems in Vietnam War vets. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, Monsanto is a potentially responsible party.  [15]   Better Strategies Model Monsanto needs to create a balance multi modal strategy to succeed in the development of sustainability. The four strategy process is: rational, symbolic, transactive, and generative. The symbolic mode involves managements creation of a convincing vision and clear corporate responsibilities mission. The rational mode relies heavily on strategic planning and reporting systems: For example corporate responsibilities and accountability based on performance. The transactive mode is based on interaction and learning; its center is communication across organizational boundaries. And the generative mode depends on organizational members is the entrepreneurial behavior. Sustainable development became a core aspect of Shapiros vision, and the strategy making process came to be dominated by the symbolic mode. Monsanto needs to build up and set up a balanced multimodal strategy-making process. The symbolic mode dominates all others. A better balance of strategic processes may help the company avoid the problems it has encountered in the past. Open connection between the rational mode and the symbolic vision of sustainability might have overcome some of Monsantos problems of inconsistency. Conclusions: Monsantos biotechnology may be the solution for the necessary means to diminish the environmental pressure of industrial agriculture. But even that biotechnology may indeed prove to be a necessary tool for achieving agricultural sustainability by no means is sufficient. Even Monsanto has taken the rights steps to be socially responsible. By increasing sustainability yield, developing ecological and educational programs, aid and tools for farmers and the participation in communities. Regardless of these efforts the company still has a lot to work on, like being more conscious about the consumers, transparency and business strategies.

Comparing Diversity in Crying of Lot 49, Good-bye, Columbus, and Survivor :: comparison Compare Contrast essays

Theme of Diversity in Crying of Lot 49, Good-bye, Columbus, and Survivor Diversity is an attribute that is seen among people, situations and cultures. Everyone has encountered different situations at one time or more during their lives that has either been pleasant or upsetting. Certain novels written in the 1950's to the present show signs of multiformity very clearly. In regards to culture, people are placed in unusual situations where their diversity is shown. Throughout the novella, "Good-bye, Columbus," written by Philip Roth, conflicts are seen as far as social status among families. This novella was not diverse in the written aspect, in fact I thought of it as easy reading. "Sure, I should serve four different meals at once.... I should jump up and down twenty different times? What am I, a workhorse?" (Roth 4) The reactions in Brenda's house differ because they have a maid and Brenda's Mom doesn't have to pick up a finger. Neal and Brenda's families are obviously placed in different social brackets and this adds to the conflict that the relationship is not equal. From the readers point of view, the tie that Neil feels toward Brenda is one of physical attraction. "She dove beautifully and a moment later she was swimming back to the side of the pool, her head of shortclipped auburn hair held up, straight ahead of her, as though it were a rose on a long stem." (Roth 3) He sees her only as a beautiful woman and allows that to get in the way of actually realizing the true reasons for her actions. Brenda on the other hand is using him to be her "slave." This is seen with all her actions that show that she honestly does not care about his feelings, his wants or desires. "' We'll be right back,' Brenda said to me. 'You have to sit with Julie. Carlota's off.'"(Roth 13) She finds Neil very accommodating in fulfilling her needs. Neil is constantly being thrown into predicaments for the first time, such as Brenda's country club, where Neil is viably not accustomed to being. "My next question was prompted by a desire to sound interested and thereby regain civility; it didn't quite come out as I'd expected- I said it too loud.

Dialectics of Internal and External :: Philosophy Philosophical Papers

Dialectics of Internal and External ABSTRACT: The central topic of this paper is the analysis of the dialectical interdependency of internal and external in the theory of language as a symbolic system. Referring to and analyzing the philosophic legacy of W. von Humboldt, B. Russell, L. Wittgenstein, F. de Saussure and G. Spet, the author concludes that the dialectics of internal and external is not an accidental and episodic phenomenon of language. It rather is an intrinsic, ontological trait apart from which an adequate cognition of the essence of language is impossible. Taking the internal form as a logical structure, it is possible to view it as something "higher and fundamental" in language, something that is attainable more by intuition than by research. The internal intellectual base of this grammatical stability lies in the sphere of purely logical forms. If internal word formulations are related to and governed by the spirit, then the external forms in fact conceal an inner grammatical and syntactic edifice. Th e laws of external speech functioning are manifested, for example, in bilingualism, which may be viewed either as a social phenomenon related to individual thinking and classificatory abilities or as an evidence of the existence of common verbal structures in human consciousness. The author proposes to transfer such linguistic terms as "bilingualism" and "contamination" into a different context as a way of seeking new topical domains within the linguistic philosophy and the philosophy of language. The empiricism of specific language functioning in the form of bilingual language contamination brings us back to the assumption of the existence of uniform internal metalanguage structures of verbal thinking. The Internal Form as a Language Structure Ever since Bertrand Russell, analytical philosophy has searched for an inner logical form of the sentence that could be true with respect to the world. Obviously, the superficial external grammatical form of sentences that we comprehend is a weak expression of the true form of corresponding facts. "Poor grammar" introduced many errors in traditional metaphysics disallowing distinctions available exclusively in the new logic. There is a need for a "philosophical grammar" — a grammar, because we speak about the form of the sentences, and philosophical because it should address not only the external but also the internal grammatical structures and reflect their interactions and transmutations thus revealing forms and elements that create the reality of true sentences. A new meaning of philosophy began with Wittgenstein's Tractatus.

Pervasive Developmental Disorders Essay

The pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs) represent a spectrum of difficulties in socialization, communication, and behavior. Autism is the best recognized and most frequently occurring form of a group of the PDDs. Because most of the research in areas related to communication has been done on autism, we will focus here on this particular PDD. However, we should be aware that autism is probably not the most common disorder on this spectrum. Other types of PDDs include Rett’s Disorder, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, Asperger’s Disorder, and Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified, or PDDNOS (Twachtman-Cullen 1998). This work will also discuss the distinctive features of Asperger’s syndrome, which is believed to be genetically related to autism. Much of what can be said about certain features of autism and PDDNOS applies to other forms of non-autistic PDD. The goal of this research is to provide a framework for understanding cognitive development in children with PDDs. The study will cover criteria for early PDDs diagnosis. The best-known type of PDDs is autistic disorder (variously called autism or infantile autism). The symptoms of autistic disorder typically increase gradually through the child’s second year, reach a peak between 2 and 4 years of age, and then show some improvement. Young children with greater cognitive ability who receive very early intensive intervention may show dramatic improvement at this age, whereas those who are more impaired will make more modest changes. Persons with autistic disorder exhibit major deficits in their ability to relate to others. The child with autistic disorder often appears content to dwell in a separate world, showing little empathic interest in parents or siblings. Unlike the normally developing baby, the child with autistic disorder may not raise his arms to be picked up or may stiffen in protest when his parents try to cuddle him. The children’s lack of social interest may make some of these babies seem like â€Å"easy babies† because they do not seek parental attention, and appear content to remain in their cribs, watching a mobile or staring at their hands. As they get older, such lack of demandingness is recognized for the relative indifference it actually reflects. The child with autistic disorder may not seek others for comfort when she is hurt or upset, finding little consolation in the gentle words and hugs that are so important to other children. Not only do the children not ask for comfort, they typically are quite indifferent to other people’s distress and do not seem to share their joy. A sibling’s tears or a parent’s happiness may elicit no response from the child with autistic disorder. Children with autistic disorder show little interest in the domestic imitation that most children enjoy. For example, unlike the normally developing child, the child with autistic disorder usually does not use his miniature mower to cut the grass like mommy or pretend to shave while he watches daddy. This lack of interest in imitation interferes with one of the primary channels for learning by young children: their ability to model adult behaviors and master them through role play. Social play is one of the primary activities of childhood. A few simple toys can create the backdrop for long hours of companionship. The child with autistic disorder does not know how to join this kind of play, sometimes completely ignoring other children, or perhaps standing on the sidelines, not comprehending how to become part of the group. Not surprisingly, given the range of social deficits they exhibit, children with autistic disorder are very impaired in their ability to make childhood friends. Within the communication domain, impairments are present in a number of linguistic and nonverbal areas, the most fundamental of which are pragmatics and semantics (i. . , the social usage and explicit or implicit meaning of language and gestures). Although linguistic capability varies greatly across the spectrum (from a total absence of speech to highly sophisticated and erudite language), significant impairments in pragmatics and semantics are universal among individuals with PDDs. They communicate primarily to express needs, desires, and preferences, rather than to convey sincere interest in others, or to share exp eriences, excitement, and feelings. Even among those possessing highly sophisticated and complex language, compliments, words of empathy, and expressions of joy in the good fortune of others are very rare. There is little reciprocity, mutuality, or shared purpose in discussions. In addition, speech and gestural forms of communication are poorly integrated, often resulting in awkward and uncomfortable social interactions. Implicit, subtle, and indirect communications are neither used nor perceived. Expressive communication tends to be explicit, direct, and concrete. During discussions, persons with autism often fail to prepare their speaking partners for conversational transitions, new topics, or personal associations. This can result in digressive, circumstantial, and tangential comments and discussions. It would appear as though persons with autism assume that others are implicitly aware of their experiences, viewpoints, attitudes, and thoughts. The fashion in which these deficits are manifest is influenced by age, overall cognitive level, temperament, and the presence of sensory or physical limitations. In toddlers, for example, impaired pragmatics may be manifested by significant limitations in reciprocal eye contact, responsive smiling, joint attention (mutual sharing of interests and excitement), and social imitative play. In addition, socially directed facial expressions, instrumental and emphatic gestures, and modulation of speech prosody (intonation, cadence, and rate) are rarely used to complement speech, communicate feelings and attitudes, or moderate social discourse. Among preschool children, impairments in symbolic functioning (e. g. , language) are accompanied by serious limitations in pretense (e. g. ymbolic, imaginative, creative, and interactive play). Pragmatic impairments among adolescents with Asperger’s syndrome may be manifested by one-sided, pedantic discussions, with no attempt to involve speaking partners by acknowledging and integrating their experiences, ideas, and viewpoints into conversations. Sincere attempts by others to engage in reciprocal conversations may be met with a lack of acknowledgment, annoyance, and disinterest. Comments or questions that are â€Å"snuck in† by the listener may be experienced as rude interruptions, prompting the directive, â€Å"Wait! I’m not done talking yet† (Bernabei, Camaioni & Levi 1998). The result is a monologue or lecture that often includes abrupt changes of topic and the introduction of unexplained personal associations. This lack of conversational reciprocity suggests that persons with AS and high-functioning autism inherently assume that the listener is implicitly aware of their own experiences, viewpoints, and intent. Because the relaying of factual and concrete information is the primary goal of â€Å"social† dialog among those with ASD, the communication of subtle attitudes, viewpoints, and emotions (particularly secondary emotions, such as embarrassment, guilt, and envy) are largely irrelevant and superfluous. Therefore, emphatic gestures, informative facial expressions, and vocal modulation lack essential meaning for them. The result is that persons with autism generally disregard nonverbal cues and fail to incorporate them into their own discussions. Because this component of social communication often conveys essential information regarding feelings, attitudes, and opinions, an inability to identify, interpret, and produce nonverbal cues can have a highly detrimental effect on social interactions and relationships. Given these impairments, it is not surprising that verbal and nonverbal aspects of communication are poorly integrated, and that subtlety and nuance are rarely conveyed. Figurative and inferential language is another area of communication that is impaired in autism, largely due to a combination of deficits in abstract and conceptual thought, social reciprocity, and appreciation of the subtleties of social communication. Persons with ASD are highly literal and concrete in their language and thought processing, typically failing to understand metaphor, irony, sarcasm, and facetiousness. As a result, comments are often misinterpreted and discussions misunderstood. In addition, in an effort to remain true to the facts, comments and questions are often presented in an overly direct, straightforward, and â€Å"brutally honest† manner, lacking appropriate tact and sensitivity (Szatmari, Jones, Fisman, Tuff, Bartolucci, Mahoney 1995). This can cause embarrassment and distress for the listener and confusion for the speaker with AS. Both may become angry and resentful; the listener, because of emotional distress and perceived mistreatment; the speaker, because of the seemingly unjustifiable overreaction and a negative attitude displayed by the listener. From the perspective of the person with AS, the listener responded in a rude and ungrateful manner to comments that were intended to be informative, useful, and corrective. The emotional distress, embarrassment, and attack on self-esteem experienced by the listener are relatively foreign to the individual with autism. Interestingly, principles, rules, and codes of behavior can be interpreted in a highly concrete and rigid manner. This can result in insensitive and hurtful comments and behavior, because exceptions to the rule, adjustments to unexpected social contingencies, and appreciation for the spirit (not simply the letter) of the law are relatively foreign to those with autism. There is little awareness that rigid adherence to unavoidably flawed rules can result in a situation that is antithetical to the underlying intent of the rule itself. One of the dinning features of autism and Asperger’s syndrome is that of rigidity and inflexibility in response to minor change and transition in the environment and daily routines. This insistence on sameness and invariance can be highly impairing, because the precipitants of these reactions often are of little social significance and do not disturb the smooth functioning of the social world. It is as though persons with autism depend on these inanimate markers of space and time because the social priorities that typically direct schedules and routines have little meaning and significance for them. Asperger’s Syndrome has been associated with cognitive strength since Hans Asperger first described the disorder in the 1940s. When he wrote of children who sounded like â€Å"little professors,† Dr. Asperger (1944/1991) was describing not only their pedantic tone but also their cognitive abilities. The assumption of adequate cognitive skill was reiterated when the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) stated that individuals with Asperger’s Syndrome show â€Å"no clinically significant delay in cognitive development† (Willey 2001). Asperger’s syndrome (AS) was added as a new â€Å"official† diagnosis when DSMIV and ICD-10 were published. In the past, children with AS were sometimes referred to as having schizoid personality, or schizotypal personality, and PDD, NOS. It is now recognized as distinct from autism. AS differs from autism in a number of key ways: first, children with AS may not be detected as early because they may have no delays in language, or only mild delays. In fact, it is usually not until parents notice that their child’s use of language is unusual, or their child’s play is also unusual, that concern sets in. Unlike autism, where the vast majority of children also experience some degree of mental retardation, children (and adults) with AS are rarely mentally retarded although many have low-average intelligence. Children with AS are sometimes described as â€Å"active, but odd† – not avoiding others the way autistic children often do, but relating in a more narrow way, usually centering activity around their own needs and peculiar interests. In fact, having one or more areas of narrow, encompassing interest is highly characteristic of those with AS. Parents often ask whether AS is the same thing as â€Å"high-functioning autism. Research studies have addressed this question, and the answer is â€Å"no† (Fombonne, Simmons, Ford, Meltzer & Goodman 2001). One main difference is that children with AS tend to have fairly comparable verbal and nonverbal levels of intelligence, while higher functioning (that is, less cognitively impaired) autistic children tend to have nonverbal IQs that are markedly higher than their verbal IQs. Another key feature of AS is the presence of intense, preoccupying interests that generally are unusual in nature and highly restricted and narrow in scope and breadth. An impressive store of factual knowledge is accrued on relatively esoteric topics; however, this knowledge is rarely utilized for functional, socially meaningful purposes. Rather, factual knowledge is pursued for its own intrinsic value to the AS individual. In addition, children and adults with AS tend to be physically awkward, uncoordinated, and poor in judging visual-spatial perspective (often failing to maintain comfortable interpersonal space during social interactions). With regard to neuropsychological functioning, verbal abilities are generally much better developed than are nonverbal abilities (e. . , perceptualmotor, visual-spatial). In a majority of cases impairments are present in executive functions, including working memory, organization, and cognitive-set flexibility. Although children with AS are thought to show no general cognitive delay, there is actually a great deal of variability in the specific abilities of individuals. In spite of mass media suggestions that individuals with AS grow up to be scientists or software engineers, we do not yet have data to support this connection. For most children, the PDDs last a lifetime. Although early intervention for many young children with autistic disorder, Aspereger’s disorder, and PDDNOS has produced major developmental changes, the technology has not yet reached the point where the majority of children make the degree of change that allows them to blend imperceptibly into their peer group. As a result, although most children with PDDs benefit in important ways from treatment, many still become adults with PDDs or some significant residuals of PDDs. There are no details of what causes PDDs. There appears to be a genetic contribution to at least some kinds of autistic disorder. For example, Fragile X syndrome is a chromosomal disorder than long has been linked to mental retardation and more recently has been shown to be related to autistic disorder. This disorder gets its name from a narrowing near the end of the long arm of the X chromosome that sometimes makes the tip fragile. Fragile X syndrome shows an X-linked (sex gene-linked) recessive pattern of inheritance. As a result, this disorder typically is transmitted to boys by their mothers. Fragile X syndrome accounts for a small but significant number of boys diagnosed with autistic disorder. General support for the notion that the symptoms of autistic disorder reflect underlying physiological dysfunction comes from research showing that autistic disorder occurs more often than would be predicted by chance among children whose mothers had German measles during pregnancy, that these children experienced a higher than expected rate of problems during pregnancy or birth, and that they are at greater risk for seizures than other children. Findings such as these raise important questions about where in the brain abnormalities may occur and how these neurochemical, biochemical, or neurological factors may be linked specifically to the development of the language, social, affective, and behavioral symptoms that characterize autistic disorder and the other PDDs. The process of accurate diagnosis and classification is an essential endeavor in medicine, because it is key to ensuring validity and reliability, enabling etiological research, and identifying effective methods of treatment. Although ASDs are not medical illnesses in the classical sense, they do result from neurodevelopmental abnormalities that affect social, communicative, and behavioral functioning in fundamental ways. The autism is not a unitary condition with a single etiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, and treatment approach; rather, it is a group of related conditions that share many clinical features and underlying social-communicative impairments. The fundamental purpose of arriving at an accurate diagnosis is to promote meaningful research that will eventually lead to effective treatment and an ultimate cure. Accurate diagnosis also enables investigators, clinicians, educators, and parents to communicate clearly, effectively, and efficiently. Ideally, a valid and reliable diagnosis should convey a great deal of information about developmental strengths and weaknesses, short- and long-term prognosis, and treatments that are most likely to be effective. Both basic and applied research endeavors are enhanced by improvements in diagnosis and classification. During recent years, efforts have been made to identify ASD as early in life as possible, in order to begin implementing educational and treatment interventions; providing families with education, support, and community resources; and reducing the stress and anxiety families experience as a result of incorrect or misleading diagnoses. The importance of an early diagnosis is supported by findings of improved linguistic, cognitive, and adaptive functioning as a result of intensive early intervention. Studies have begun to appear in the research literature assessing the reliability and stability of autism diagnoses made during the early preschool years. Experienced clinical investigators have demonstrated that an accurate diagnosis of autism can be made in the second and third years of life. However, accuracy depends on the completion of a comprehensive, interdisciplinary assessment, one that includes the use of standardized diagnostic instruments in conjunction with clinical expertise. Nonetheless, even among experienced clinicians and investigators, false positive and false negative diagnoses are sometimes made. Investigators have begun to examine clinical variables that may be predictive of treatment response and general prognosis. For example, Handleman & Harris (2001) found that preschool children with autism who exhibited low baseline levels of social avoidance experienced significantly more social and linguistic progress than did their high-avoidance counterparts following 6 months of intensive incidental teaching and pivotal response training (provided in an inclusive setting). A complementary strategy for assessing the validity of AS is to examine the pattern of associated symptomatology. In this regard, a recent study investigated emotional and behavioral disturbance (psychopathology) in 4 to 18-year-olds with HFA and AS. The Developmental Behavior Checklist (DBC), an informant-based instrument completed by parents and teachers, was used to assess psychopathology. The DBC contains the following six subscales: disruptive, self-absorbed, communication disturbance, anxiety, antisocial, and autistic relating. Children and adolescents with AS exhibited high levels of psychopathology, particularly disruptive behavior, anxiety, and problems with social relationships. The best documented approach to the treatment of people with PDDs is a form of behavior therapy called applied behavior analysis. Since the mid-1960s, when Ivar Lovaas and his colleagues demonstrated that children with autism responded to carefully planned applied behavior analytic techniques, there has been extensive research on the use of these methods to treat the PDDs, especially for autistic disorder, Asperger’s disorder, and PDDNOS (Durand 1990). Three decades of research have contributed to the development of a substantial array of specific behavioral treatment techniques and of documentation to support the efficacy of these methods in treatment of PDDs. This research also has demonstrated the essential role that parents can play in the treatment of their children by providing consistency of intervention between home and school, or even in some cases as the child’s primary therapist.